The asymmetric division of G. trihymene serves as an alternative mechanism through which ciliates may

have led to a multicellular form: a multicellular form could arise by a ciliate with one macronucleus and one micronucleus subdividing itself as a result of growth followed by arrested cytokinesis. It should be noted, however, that such asymmetric division does not result in different developmental fates akin to truly multicellular ciliate species, such as Zoothamnium alternans [35, 36]. As is shown in this study, asymmetric dividers produce new asymmetric dividers and trophonts by successive asymmetric divisions, in favorable conditions, and the more available food, the longer the asymmetric www.selleckchem.com/products/sgc-cbp30.html divisions persisted (Figure 3, filled bars). If asymmetric dividers lived in consistently bacteria-rich

environments for a long time, they might retain the multicellular form, but lose the ability to produce trophonts or tomites. Bacteria-rich environments were common in the ancient ocean, which had very different chemistry from that of today’s [37, 38]. Thus, it is possible that some multicellular organisms, which have not yet been selleck inhibitor discovered or have since gone extinct, originated from certain asymmetric dividers of ciliates. Conclusions Diverse reproductive modes in G. trihymene were unexpectedly Tozasertib cost discovered. This study is the first to report asymmetric division and reproductive cysts in scuticociliates.

In addition, the presence of multiple reproductive modes is a previously undescribed reproductive strategy for ciliates living on food patches in coastal waters. The asymmetric dividers may give insight into possible origins of multicellularity and provide a special opportunity for studying ciliate polyphenism. We predict that asymmetric division and other reproductive strategies will be discovered in other polyphenic protists through more intensive study. Methods Sampling and identifying G. trihymene G. trihymene PRA-270 was isolated with a fine pipette from a seawater rinse of a newly dead crab (species unknown) collected from a sand STK38 beach near the pier of Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong (22°20′ N; 114°17′ E) on August 20, 2007. The salinity was about 33‰, temperature 26°C, and pH 8.1. The cultures used in this study were derived from a single G. trihymene cell of the Hong Kong isolate. Seven other isolates were collected from Texas coastal areas (Table 2). The salinity was about 33‰ and temperature ranged from 23 to 31°C. Trophonts and tomites of G. trihymene were observed in vivo first using a stereomicroscope and then an epi-fluorescence microscope at 100-1000×. The nuclear apparatuses and infraciliature were revealed by the protargol impregnation method [39]. The protargol S™ was manufactured by Polysciences Inc., Warrington, PA (Cat No.