However, in combination

with CCR7 downregulation, CXCR5 expression enables the TFH cells to migrate into B-cell follicles in a CXCL13-dependent manner. This process assists the antigen-specific B cells to mount a GC response and to promote the selection of B cells expressing high-affinity antibodies in the GC environment [2, 35, 36]. Neither IgG1+ Venetoclax in vitro memory B cells nor GC B cells are generated in CD40-deficient mice after immunization with a TD antigen, NP-chicken gamma globulin (CGG), or in wild type mice immunized with a T-cell independent (TI) antigen, NP-Ficoll [2]. These results indicate that the development of both GC-dependent and -independent IgG1+ memory B cells requires classical T-cell help. B cells also receive innate nonclassical help from natural killer T (NKT) cells [38], although both GC-dependent and -independent memory B cells develop normally in mice lacking NKT cells [2]. However, GC-dependent and -independent memory B cells are distinct with respect to their dependence on TFH help for their generation and maintenance. We showed in a recent study that the loss of TFH

cells caused by T-cell specific deletion of Bcl6 resulted in complete absence of GCs for at least 40 days [2]. However, total numbers of memory B cells were reduced only about twofold in the absence of TFH cells. This reduction resulted predominantly from the loss of mutated Selleckchem PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor high-affinity memory B cells, consistent with the notion that

the generation of these cells significantly relies on TFH cells. Significantly, unmutated memory B cells still developed upon conditional deletion of Bcl6 in both either B and or T cells, demonstrating the existence of a TD memory B-cell developmental pathway independent of GCs and TFH cells. Whether naïve B cells are intrinsically programed for recruitment into either the GC-independent or GC-dependent pathway, or can enter either pathway depending on signals received upon activation, remains to be explored. Clearly, both pathways require TD antigenic Unoprostone stimulation. However, the processes following initial B-cell activation are dynamic and involve sequential cellular interactions of different duration [39], which would provide ample opportunities for activated B cells to branch out into alternate differentiation pathways. As discussed above, the polarization of antigen-specific CD4+ T cells into effector Th-cell populations is completed within 3 days during the DC priming period [12]. Based on our study, antigen-binding IgG1+ B cells with a memory B-cell gene expression signature appear at around day 3 after immunization [2].