A statistical test of heterogeneity tells us whether such differences in treatment effects within a meta-analysis are due to study characteristics (heterogeneity), which need to be explored and explained, or are

due to chance alone. The test for heterogeneity is called the Cochran’s Q. This is similar to a chi-squared test for which the P-value can be interpreted (P < 0.05 indicates presence of heterogeneity). Statistical evaluation of heterogeneity is also expressed as the I2 statistic where, simply put, an I2 = 0% is no heterogeneity and increasing values to a maximum 100% is evidence of increasing heterogeneity. Higgins et al. defined low, moderate and high levels of heterogeneity as 25%, 50% and 100%, respectively.18 We note in Figure 2 that while five of eight trials appear to give Opaganib molecular weight similar RR for mortality

comparing higher and lower haemoglobin target values, three SRT1720 purchase trials (Levin et al.,19 Rossert et al.,20 and Parfrey et al.21) differ in the direction of treatment effect from the rest – and show higher risks of death with a lower haemoglobin target. The authors of this systematic review report no significant heterogeneity in this analysis (χ2 = 9.59, P = 0.213, I2 = 27%), suggesting that variability in effect size observed between studies might be due to chance alone. Once heterogeneity is identified using medroxyprogesterone formal statistical analysis, a preliminary approach to its interpretation is the visual analysis of the forest plot. Heterogeneity may be due to differences in studies including variations in the patient population, the intervention (including dose, route, frequency of administration) and study quality. In the example in Figure 2, we can ask how do the studies of Levin et al. Rossert et al. and Pafrey et al. differ from the others in the plot; did

they have differing event rates; were they conducted in different populations; were they of different method quality; or were they significantly smaller or larger studies (or other similar questions). When high-level or significant heterogeneity is identified, the causes of heterogeneity can be explored by subgroup analyses, by meta-regression or by qualitative assessment. Subgroup analysis pools similar studies together to allow the systematic reviewer to examine an effect estimate within subgroups of studies. This could be, for example, separating high-quality from low-quality studies into differing subgroups and summarizing treatment effects of each individual subgroup. It should be noted, however, that any reduction in heterogeneity achieved by dividing studies into such subgroups might simply reflect a loss of power to discern important variability that still remains between studies within a single subgroup.