Macquarie Island is a United Nations Education and Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) Biosphere Reserve and World Heritage listed for its outstanding geological and natural significance (UNESCO, 2013). Macquarie Island is geologically unique as it

is entirely composed of uplifted oceanic crust (Williamson, 1988). Hence, much of the Island is composed of volcanic, sulphur-rich bedrock (primarily pillow basalts) and associated sediments (Cumpston, 1968). Since PF-2341066 its discovery in AD 1810 it has experienced extensive and on-going environmental impacts from exploitation of its native wildlife and from deliberate and inadvertent introductions of invasive species, particularly vertebrates that have developed feral populations. Human activities were initially focused on exploiting the abundant seal and penguin populations for oil, leading to their near extinction by the end of the nineteenth century (Cumpston, 1968). During this time a number of non-indigenous animals were introduced including cats (in the early nineteenth century as pets); rabbits (in AD 1879 as an additional human food source); and rats and mice, which were inadvertently introduced (Cumpston, 1968). Together they have had devastating

environmental impacts across the Island (PWS, 2007) including degradation of the vegetation, with resulting widespread slope instability and erosion. Secondary impacts also occurred on burrowing seabirds that require vegetation cover around their nesting sites (PWS, 2007). Rodents

have also had significant impacts, with ship Roxadustat chemical structure rats in particular eating the eggs DNA ligase and chicks of burrow-nesting petrels (PWS, 2007). Therefore, the unique natural values that led to Macquarie Island’s World Heritage listing were increasingly being threatened (PWS, 2007). Since AD 1974 the focus on management of both invasive and threatened species has changed from collection of baseline data, to integrated control, and now the eradication of feral populations and the development of a natural environment recovery programme (Copson and Whinham, 2001). Control and/or eradication of invasive species began with attempts to control the feral cat population in AD 1975. This was followed by a cat eradication programme which began in AD 1985 and ended in AD 2000 (PWS, 2007). The control of rabbits using the Myxamatosis virus started in AD 1978–79 when the rabbit population was estimated at 150,000 ( Copson and Whinham, 2001). By the AD 1980s–1990s numbers dropped to approximately 10% of the AD 1970 population. From AD 1999 to 2003, however, their numbers rapidly increased due to the absence of cats, successively warmer winters and growing resistance to the virus which ceased to be deployed in AD 1999 ( PWS, 2007 and PWS, 2013). This significantly increased the damage caused by rabbits across the Island. The eradication of rabbits and other rodents is now the highest management priority (PWS, 2007).