Nearly all melanoma cell lines tested to date have shown pRb pathway alterations due to p16 or pRb deficiency, cdk4 mutation, or cyclin D1 overexpression [18] and [29]. In all types of melanoma, the most frequently amplified region is chromosome 11q13 [2] and [3], which harbors the cyclin D1 gene. Although cyclin D1 is a well-known growth promoter, it may also function as a survival factor for tumor cells [27] and [31]. Cyclin D1 amplification or overexpression is a crucial event that leads to melanoma progression

[10] and is associated with high proliferation rates in these tumors [17] and [29]. Failure to downregulate cyclin D1 Dasatinib chemical structure overexpression in melanocytic cells probably promotes cell proliferation and prevents differentiation [29]. Cyclin D1 is a nuclear protein encoded by the CCND1 gene, which is located at chromosome 11q13. CCND1 amplification has been detected in over 44% of acral lentiginous melanomas, but much less frequently in other melanoma subtypes [27] and [31]. All melanoma cases with an increased number of CCND1 copies overexpress cyclin D1. However, about 25% of melanomas that overexpress cyclin D1 have been found to have a normal number of CCND1 copies, suggesting that cyclin

D1 levels are modulated by multiple mechanisms [4], [18] and [27]. It is possible that cyclin D1 overexpression is induced by a defect in its degradation that increases its stability. Cyclin degradation is normally check details regulated by ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis [19] and [24]. Different ubiquitin-dependent proteolytic pathways use enzymes conjugated to different structurally similar ubiquitins. These, in turn, Mirabegron are associated with recognition subunits of proteins targeted by a particular degradation sign. The enzyme that, when conjugated, adds ubiquitin to a lysine residue of a target protein and then, subsequently, adds a series

of additional ubiquitins, forms a polyubiquitin chain that is recognized by a specific receptor protein in proteasomes [1] and [14]. Polyubiquitin chains are linked covalently to the target protein through a cascade of three enzymes: ubiquitin-activating enzymes (E1), ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes (E2), and ubiquitin-protein ligases (E3). In the last stage of this cascade, the ubiquitin-protein ligase (E3) acts as a central component of the ubiquitination pathway, catalyzing the final transfer of ubiquitin from E2 to the substrate [8], [9], [11], [14] and [15]. The interaction of the E2 and E3 proteins is through protein fragments called RING finger proteins. The SCF protein (SKP1-CUL1(CDC53)-F-box) and the Anaphase Promoter Complex (APC) are the two major ubiquitin-ligase complexes.