Notch1 is involved in the regulation of tumor cell growth, proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis, and chemoradioresistance. Notch1 protects Snail1 from degradation by preventing GSK-3β-mediated phosphorylation via LOXL2 oxidation, as detailed above [18]. The relationship between the expression of cyclooxegnase-2 (Cox-2) S63845 purchase and the downregulation of E-cadherin and its relationship to the EMT phenotype was reported by Fujii et al. [162]. These investigators examined Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (HNSCC) cells and treated the cells with Cox-2 inhibitors

(Celecoxib, NS-398 and SC-791) and examined EMT-associated gene products by quantitative real-time PCR and Western blot. The findings demonstrated that the inhibitors upregulated E-cadherin and inhibited its transcriptional repressors such as Snail1. The investigators suggested that the administration of Cox-2 inhibitors may suppress EMT and metastasis via re-expression of E-cadherin. Snail1 regulates chemo and immune resistance Reducing Snail1 expression has proven Snail1’s involvement in tumor resistance to many chemotherapeutic

drugs and immunotherapies. In melanoma, Snail1 knockdown, as a result of siRNA treatment, stops both tumor metastasis and immunosuppression. Tumor-specific T cell responses also intensify as a result of this knockdown [144]. Similarly, shRNA treatment induces CBL0137 datasheet apoptosis in adriamycin-resistant melanoma cells, and Snail1 reduction leads to cisplatin sensitization in lung adenocarcinoma, head and neck squamous, and ovarian cancers [13,163–165]. Selleckchem MK-3475 Additionally, Snail1 has been implicated in resistance to radiation and paclitaxel in ovarian cancer cell lines as well as protection against 5-fluorouracil and gemcitabine in Panc-1 cells [166,167]. Snail1 also factors into resistance because of its involvement in survival pathways. Snail1’s activation of MAPK and PI3K survival pathways leads to resistance to serum depletion and TNF-α [168]. The repression of NF-κB and therefore

Snail1, its downstream target, sensitizes tumor cells to cisplatin and TNF-related GW786034 price apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-induced apoptosis. Treatments with nitric oxide, the proteasome inhibitor NPI-0052, and rituximab all achieve this repression and consequential resistance reversal. These treatments have proven effective in prostate cancers and B-Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma, respectively [168–171]. Akalay et al. reported that the overexpression of Snail1 in breast cancer cell lines resulted in resistance to CTL-mediated killing and was associated with the EMT phenotype. The resistant cells exhibited amodulation of the formation of the immunologic synapse with CTLs along with the induction of autophagy in the target cells. The findings also showed that the inhibition of autophagy by targeting Beclin-1 sensitized the EMT cells to CTL killing. Hence, tumor cells’ resistance to CTL is mediated by EMT-induced activation of autophagy-dependent mechanisms [172,173].