The information included research concerning nitrate in

beetroot juice but the question remains whether this information automatically translates to all nitrate rich foodstuffs. Further studies, using different foodstuffs such as salads, spinach or tomatoes, are required to gain a better insight into this effect. The results provided evidence that knowledge (achieved via a meaningful message), in fact, is linked to beliefs and GW-572016 nmr implicit attitude formation. In the Theory of Planned Behaviour framework [61], attitude is defined as a decisional balance between pros and cons about performance enhancing substances. Attitudes, complemented by subjective norms and perceived behavioral control, lead to behavioural intentions and progress to volitional phase, if the situation for the act is favorable. Perceived behavioural control is equivalent to the combination of outcome expectancies and construct specific self-efficacy [62], such as doing well without the assistance of performance enhancing substances. In other words, whilst self-efficacy is a belief in self to successfully execute the behavior required for the desirable outcome, outcome expectancy refers to one’s estimation that this behavior will, indeed, lead to the desired outcomes. Therefore, athletes who wish to use performance enhancing substances

but prefer to refrain from the prohibited ones must believe that i) they are able to remain AR-13324 in vivo competitive without prohibited substances and ii) alternatives (dietary supplements and functional foods) are, indeed, comparable alternatives. Congruently, those who contemplate using or use PEDs must believe that these alternatives are inferior to the prohibited substances and that they would not remain competitive if doping is not used. Assuming that the message is moderated via personal preferences and experiences, affording greater influence on some more than eFT-508 others, in addition to the characteristics of the ‘message’ (information), it is assumed that athletes’ attitudes, outcome expectancies

(beliefs Adenylyl cyclase about PEDs and FF), motivation toward the importance of performance enhancements within or beyond the permitted means, and their self-efficacy, may serve as moderators in information processing. The results also indicate that individuals prefer to gain their information from peers and websites. This can prove problematic if the person they gain their information from is already affiliated with PED’s. As PEDs are not available from shops and blindly asking the wrong person may result in disapproving looks. For example, access to anabolic steroids has been shown to act as a barrier to use [63]. In order to gain access to PEDs, individuals are likely to have some association with individuals who are able to gain access.