Under these conditions, exogenous application of a large number of different substances can elicit a triphasic motor pattern (Figure 3), although each substance produces a different form of the rhythm. These data were initially interpreted as showing that the same neuronal circuitry can be reconfigured differently by each of a large number of neuromodulators. That interpretation still holds. But these data also make a second point: there are a large number of different neuromodulators that can activate the network. To some extent these constitute degenerate mechanisms that can, as a first approximation, substitute for each other,

if it is more important that a rhythm exist than its exact form. This ABT-199 is especially the case if the neuromuscular junctions activated by these motor neurons act as a temporal filter (Brezina, 2010; selleckchem Hooper and Weaver, 2000; Morris and Hooper, 1998). Modulators may also stabilize motor patterns (Zhao et al., 2011). In addition to the fast pyloric rhythm, the STG also expresses two slower rhythms, the gastric mill rhythm and the cardiac sac rhythm. These rhythms require descending modulatory inputs for

their expression. Figure 4A shows a cartoon comparing the effects of stimulating three different proctolin-containing modulatory projection neurons on the pyloric and gastric rhythms of the crab. While each of these neurons contains and releases proctolin, the cotransmitter complement of these three neurons is different (Blitz et al., 1999), and stimulation of these neurons elicits different motor patterns from the STG. A full gastric rhythm is elicited by MCN1. MPN increases the frequency of the fast pyloric rhythm, while MCN7 activates still a different rhythm. Not only can modulators alter the motor patterns produced by a single circuit, but they can also combine elements from two circuits into one. The schematic shown in Figure 4B shows that the neuropeptide Red Pigment Concentrating Hormone (RPCH) strengthens synapses from the IVN neurons to STG network neurons and creates a single, conjoint rhythm second from neurons that ordinarily are part of the cardiac sac and gastric rhythm

(Dickinson et al., 1990). This is one of many examples of circuit switching in the STG, in which neurons switch from being part of the pyloric or gastric circuits (Weimann and Marder, 1994; Weimann et al., 1991). While some aspects of the effects of a cotransmitter-containing projection neuron may be recapitulated with bath application of one of its substances, it is unlikely that exogenous bath applications will reproduce the concentration profiles that are produced by neural stimulation. In contrast, there are substances that only reach the neuropil of the STG as circulating hormones (Saideman et al., 2006; Weimann et al., 1997). In this case, bath applications at realistic concentrations are far more likely to elicit responses similar to those evoked in vivo.