Seven Selleckchem GW-572016 SF-RFFs were harvested for head and neck reconstructions. The dissection of the cephalic vein lasted less than 25 min in all cases. No flap loss or thrombosis was observed. The SF-RFF is a reliable and versatile procedure for facial, oral, or larynx reconstruction. This hybrid version of the radial forearm free flap is particularly appropriate when no suitable recipient veins are available as a result of radiation or prior surgery. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery,

2012. “
“In this report, we present the findings of reinnervation of the thenar muscle in five patients who underwent the contralateral C7 nerve root transfers for repair of total brachial plexus root avulsions. Five (2 children and 3 adults) of 32 patients who received two-staged procedures of the contralateral C7 nerve root transfers to the median nerves showed reinnervation

of thenar muscle were evaluated. The patients also Stem Cell Compound Library received other procedures including the intercostal nerve transfer to the musculocutaneous nerve, the spinal accessory nerve to the suprascapular nerve, and the ipsilateral phrenic nerve to the musculocutaneous nerve before the contralateral C7 nerve root transfers. The patients were followed up from 24 to 118 months after surgery. Varied degrees of functional restorations were achieved after different procedures. The strength of abductor pollicis brevis (APB) muscle with Grade M2 was found in four patients. The incomplete interference pattern in the APB muscle was detected by electromyogram (EMG) in two patients, and the minority motor unit potential (MUP) was detected in other two patients. The strength of APB muscle was found with Grade M1 in one patient with EMG showing MUP. The findings from our series show reinnervation IKBKE of thenar muscles after repair of the median nerve with the contralateral C7 nerve root transfer, which provides evidence

for further investigation of reconstruction of the brachial plexus root avulsion injury with this procedure. © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc. Microsurgery, 2011. “
“We have previously described a modified chimeric fibular osteocutaneous flap design based on a combination of a traditional fibular flap and a peroneal artery perforator fasciocutaneous flap for mandible and adjacent soft tissue reconstruction. The purpose of this article is to share our experience with a larger case series utilizing this new technique for mandible and adjacent soft tissue reconstruction after cancer wide excision surgery and a more detailed description on these flaps harvesting procedures. Ten patients (age range from 32 to 63 years), who had segmental defect of mandible and adjacent soft tissue defect after cancer wide excision surgery, received mandible and adjacent soft tissue reconstruction based on the modified chimeric fibular flap design. The skin paddle based on peroneal perforators ranged from 9 cm × 3.5 cm to 10 cm × 10 cm and the mean pedicle length was 8.9 cm.

We measured proliferative responses to these two peptides in another cohort of patients with RA or osteoarthritis: positive responses were found in 28% of RA, but also in 11% of osteoarthritis patients and these responses could be blocked by anti-MHC class II Ab. Remarkably, the presence of 117/120–133-specific T cells was significantly associated with active disease in RA patients, and bone

www.selleckchem.com/products/fg-4592.html erosion appeared to be more common in T-cell positive patients. These data suggest involvement of hnRNP-A2 specific cellular autoimmune responses in RA pathogenesis. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease of unknown etiology characterized by chronic synovial inflammation in multiple joints leading to cartilage and bone damage and disability. The prevalence JQ1 purchase of RA is about 1% in the industrialized world and the major genetic contribution involves HLA class II alleles dominated by HLA DR*0101, DR*0401, and DR*0404 molecules in Caucasian

populations 1. These alleles share a highly homologous amino acid sequence at positions 67–74 of the third hypervariable region of the DRβ chain, termed the shared epitope 2, affecting peptide binding and T-cell recognition. Synovial tissue of inflamed joints is characterized by massive infiltration of T cells mostly of the Th1 subset, B cells, macrophages, and mast cells 3. Based on the abundance of T cells and the association of RA susceptibility with certain MHC class II Resminostat genotypes, it has been hypothesized that disease-associated

HLA-DR alleles present arthritogenic peptides leading to the stimulation and expansion of autoantigen-specific T cells in the joints and/or draining lymph nodes. Humoral and/or cellular immune responses against multiple autoantigens have been detected in arthritic patients or murine arthritis models. These include joint-specific proteins such as collagen, cartilage proteoglycan, cartilage oligomeric matrix protein, cartilage gp39, as well as ubiquitously expressed proteins such as heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A2 (hnRNP-A2), keratin/filaggrin, fibrinogen, the stress protein BiP, and glucose 6-phosphate isomerase 4. These antigens have been studied mostly at the level of Ab production. Thus, some autoantibodies such as rheumatoid factor and Ab against deiminated (citrullinated) antigens have considerable diagnostic significance in RA 4. Although some of these autoantigens have been shown to induce T-cell reactivity 4, 5, information regarding autoantigen-specific T-cell responses in patients is limited and even contradictory 6. Moreover, the identification of autoantigenic T-cell epitopes has remained scarce and the role of T-cell responses in RA pathogenicity is still unresolved 5.

003, Wilcoxon-test). Male-target cells pulsed with the control-peptide I540S did not influence T cell reactivity compared with naïve cells (I540S: 12–29/100,000; median: 23; P < 0.106 to P < 0.066). In vivo-primed female T cells recognized peptide-loaded T2-cells (W248: 85 ± 28/100,000 T cells; T368: 35 ± 12/100,000; K1234: 50 ± 17/100,000) being UTY-specific as indicated by Anti-MHC-I-antibody-blockage

(W248: 30 ± 10/100,000 T cells; T368: 26 ± 9/100,000; K1234: 10 ± 3/100,000; P < 0.026 to P < 0.018, Wilcoxon-test). In contrast, T2-cells alone or loaded with the I540S-control-peptide demonstrated only low unspecific-reactions (20–1/100,000 T cells, median: 9; P < 0.113 to P < 0.018, Wilcoxon-test). According to LY2109761 order the in vitro experiments (Table 2, Fig. 3) in vivo primed female T cells mostly reacted with male-BM (<45 specific-spots/100,000 CD3+T cells)

followed by monocytes (<29 spots) and PBMCs (<15 spots) and in vivo immunogenicity of the hUTY-peptides was comparable with those in vitro: W248 exhibited the most immunogenic potential on T2-cells (85 spots/100,000 T cells > K1234 (50 spots) >T368 (35 spots)). We provide evidence that hUTY-derived male-peptides specifically expand T lymphocytes derived from female-DLA-identical-dogs either using autologous-peptide-pulsed-female DCs as APC in vitro or male-DLA-identical PBMCs in vivo. The expanded female T cells recognized HLA-A2-binding hUTY-derived endogenously presented peptides W248, K1234 and T368 only on selleck products DLA-identical

male-cells (mostly BM) representing a male-specific restriction. Thereby, W248 appeared to be the most immunogenic-peptide. Importantly, no response against autologous- and female-DLA-identical cells, not expressing the male-specific-UTY antigen, was detected. Therefore, we conclude that the mHA UTY is very homologous www.selleck.co.jp/products/Gefitinib.html in male-humans and dogs, and the canine-system could serve as a large-animal model to study T cell applications in terms of immunotherapeutic approaches after alloSCT in male patients with female donors. Consequently hUTY-(especially W248)-pulsed female DCs might be used in male hematopoietic-SCT recipients with female stem-cell donors [3, 6, 7]. CD8+T cell-proliferation was induced up to 3-fold within 3–4 weeks (Fig. 1). After in vitro stimulation expanded CD8+T cells specifically reacted against the hUTY-derived peptides presented on autologous-female DCs in up to 3.1% of all T cells (IFN-γ-ELISPOT assay, Fig. 2), but not against autologous-naïve DCs and monocytes. This proves that HLA-A2-restricted peptides selected from human-UTY protein bind to canine-DLA-identical molecule(s), and these peptides are immunogenic in dogs and can induce UTY-specific T cell reactivity. Detected amounts of reactive-UTY-specific CD8+T cells after in vitro culture with IFN-γ-ELISPOT and [51Cr]-release-assays were comparable. This is in accordance with findings by others, although both the assays address different CTL-mechanisms [41].

This is highlighted in instances where siblings of a similar predisposing genetic make-up do not all become diabetic.

In order to understand this phenomenon more clearly, we must study systematically changes in the SCH772984 manufacturer innate and adaptive immune responses in key cohorts over time. Most studies thus far involving autoreactive CD4+ and CD8+ T cells have focused more extensively on the newly diagnosed population and less on prediabetes. It would be informative to know the immune profile of individuals at the time of, or immediately preceding, autoantibody positivity. Unbiased approaches that interrogate innate immunity would also be gap-filling here [38]. There was general consensus that access to existing repositories needs to be improved. Type 1 diabetes Trial-Net (http://www.diabetestrialnet.org), the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK; http://www2.niddk.nih.gov), Network of Pancreatic Organ Donors (n-POD; http://www.jdrfnpod.org) and other repositories offer samples suitable for evaluation of biomarkers of different stages of disease. It was noted that the Trial-Net Ancillary Study Committee offers a navigator to help non-diabetes investigators design their studies. It would be meaningful to utilize these resources effectively for biomarker research. Living biobanks were felt to be key for moving T1D biomarker check details efforts

forward. A living biobank is a cohort of well-characterized individuals who are followed longitudinally along the course of disease progression, and who have consented to provide ‘on-demand’ biological samples for research purposes. These

biobanks support studies that are novel and preliminary, supply assays that require large sample volume and need to be tested in a large sample size for validation or require fresh cells/samples. It would be reasonable to prioritize optimization or development of T cell-based assays with these cohort samples. Such cohorts would also be ideal for the study of disease progression over long periods of time and might allow for procuring Thiamet G longitudinal samples at frequent intervals (e.g. every 8 weeks or so), unlike what has been possible in the past. Given the gap-filling roles living biobanks can play in biomarker development, the group discussed whether a large effort could be undertaken by existing independent biobanks both in the United States [TrialNet, Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes (BDC; http://www.barbaradaviscenter.org), Benaroya Research Institute (BRI; http://www.benaroyaresearch.org), The T1D Exchange (http://www.t1dexchange.org), etc.] and around the world (Germany, Finland, Australia, United Kingdom) to come together with greater co-operation towards a seamless and unified living biobank effort. Special populations to target in this effort would be: Cohorts of genetically at-risk subjects. Cohorts of discordant twins, which would offer genetically matched samples suitable for ‘omics’ approaches.

We believe that the accompanying artery of the sciatic nerve may be a recipient vessel for free-flap transfer in selected patients. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery, 2014. “
“Purpose: In this report, we present our experience

on the repair of brachial plexus root avulsion injuries with the use of contralateral C7 nerve root transfers with nerve grafting through a modified prespinal route. Methods: The outcomes of the contralateral C7 nerve root transfer to neurotize the upper trunk and C5/C6 nerve roots of the total or near total brachial plexus nerve root avulsion injury in a series of 41 patients were evaluated. PS 341 The contralateral C7 nerve root that was dissected to the distal end of the divisions, along with the sural nerve graft, were placed underneath the anterior scalene and longus colli muscles, and then passed through the retro-esophageal space to neurotize the recipient nerve. The mean length of the dissected contralateral C7 nerve root was 6.5 ± 0.7 cm, and the mean length of sural nerve graft was 6.8 ± 1.9 cm. The suprascapular

nerve was neurotized additionally by the phrenic nerve or the terminal motor branch of accessory nerve in some patients. Results: The mean length of the follow-up was 47.2 ± 14.5 months. The muscle strength was graded M4 or M3 for the biceps muscle in 85.4% of patients, for the deltoid muscle in 82.9% of patients, and for the upper parts of pectoral major in 92.7% of patients. The functional recovery of shoulder of abduction in the patients with the additional suprascapular nerve neurotization was remarkably improved. Conclusions: Atezolizumab The modified prespinal route could significantly reduced the length of nerve graft in the contralateral C7 nerve root transfer

to the injured upper trunk in brachial plexus root avulsion injury, and it may improve the functional outcomes, which deserves further investigations. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery, 2012. “
“Vascular thrombosis is one of the major postoperative complications of free flap microvascular breast reconstruction operations. It is associated with higher morbidity, higher cost, increased length of hospital stay, and potentially flap loss. Our purpose is to evaluate the rate of this complication and whether patient characteristics play a role. Using the Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) database, we examined the clinical data of patients who underwent free flap breast reconstruction between 2009 and 2010 in the United States. Multivariate and univariate regression analyses were performed to identify independent risk factors of flap thrombosis. A total of 15,211 patients underwent free flap breast reconstruction surgery (immediate reconstruction: 43%). The most common flap was the free deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap (53.6%), followed by free transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap (43.

194 FRACTIONAL EXCRETION OF MAGNESIUM AND RENAL FUNCTION IN CYSTIC FIBROSIS C MUNRO1,2, S RANGANATHAN1,2, C QUINLAN1,2 1The

Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria; 2The Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Aim: To assess the fractional excretion and renal function of children with Cystic Fibrosis (CF). Background: Patients with CF are at risk of magnesium deficiency due to: gastrointestinal losses, renal losses, and drugs causing magnesium wasting. The prevalence is suggested to be 3% and it is less frequently reported in children than in adults. We sought to examine FeMg in subjects with CF during

treatment with aminoglycosides. Methods: Patients aged ≤ 6 years were recruited when commencing IV aminoglycosides and Erlotinib in vivo have urinary and serum sampling of creatinine and magnesium on days 1, 4, 5, 7 and 10–14. Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was calculated using the Zapitelli, Bouvet and Schwartz CKiD formulae. FEMg was calculated as: Results: 6 patients, aged 0.53–6.87 years, 3 males, 3 gentamicin and 3 tobramycin, have been recruited to date. A total of 44 patients will be recruited. Mean eGFR (± SD) was 102.7 (± 11.3) mL/min/1.73 m2 by the Zapitelli formula, 59 (± 21.9) mL/min/m2 by the Bouvet and 107 (± 16.3) enough mL/min/1.73 m2

by Schwartz. FEMg was PD-0332991 clinical trial considered elevated if >1.4%. Mean (± SD) FEMg on day 1 was 3.95 (± 2.78)%, rising to 9.3 (± 2.35)% on day 5 and dropping back to 3.64 (± 1.66)% by day 10–14. Conclusions: Aminoglycosides are widely used in CF and are introduced at a younger age, as more children are diagnosed following newborn screening. There are concerns that aminoglycosides contribute to renal disease in patients with CF. The effect of aminoglycosides on FEMg has not previously been studied. The proposed action of Mg in CF is incompletely understood. These results suggest that the metabolism and excretion of Mg in CF warrants further study, and that aminoglycosides considerable alters Mg excretion. 195 HETEROZYGOUS LMX1B MUTATION DETECTION IN FAMILIAL FSGS WITHOUT EXTRARENAL MANIFESTATIONS USING WHOLE EXOME SEQUENCING J FLETCHER1, A MALLETT2,3, G HO4, H MCCARTHY5, A SAWYER6, A MALLAWAARACHCHI7, M ROSIER1, M LITTLE8, B BENNETTS4, H JUPPNER9, A TURNER10, SI ALEXANDER5 1Department of Paediatrics, The Canberra Hospital, Australian Capital Territory; 2Department of Renal Medicine, Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital, Queensland; 3CKD.

These data suggest that Bcl-3 may not play a significant role in the regulation of inflammation in the colon. Despite a robust inflammatory response following DSS treatment, the colonic tissue architecture in Bcl-3−/− mice, in particular the epithelial features, remain intact. Following DSS treatment intestinal epithelial cell proliferation in Bcl-3−/− mice was enhanced significantly, whereas in wild-type mice it was

absent. The increased proliferation in Bcl-3−/− mice correlates with the maintenance of tissue architecture and structure and suggests that the resistance to DSS-induced colitis of Bcl-3−/− mice results from increased regeneration of the epithelium. It is also noteworthy that Bcl-3 acts a negative regulator of myeloid progenitor proliferation and differentiation, and is essential for limiting granulopoiesis under inflammatory conditions [27]. This study identifies a novel role for Bcl-3 in regulating buy PI3K Inhibitor Library intestinal epithelial cell proliferation under inflammatory but not homeostatic conditions. Our identification of Bcl-3 as a negative regulator of intestinal epithelial cell proliferation during colitis suggests additional physiological functions Opaganib order for Bcl-3 beyond its role as a negative regulator of proinflammatory gene expression. The dual role of NF-κB as a key mediator of inflammation

and a critical driver of epithelial cell survival and proliferation has rendered it a complex and difficult therapeutic target in IBD. Transgenic mice in which NF-κB activity has been inhibited selectively in the intestinal epithelium develop spontaneous colitis due to failure of the epithelial barrier function, while an increase in intestinal NF-κB activity also leads to severe check inflammation [4]. The data obtained in this study, however, suggest that certain regulatory components of the NF-κB pathway such as Bcl-3 may play a more important role in the epithelium rather than the immune system

in the colon. We have demonstrated previously that Bcl-3 expression is induced by inflammation [16]. Given that the proliferation of intestinal epithelial cells is normal in Bcl-3−/− mice, it is probable that inflammation-induced expression of Bcl-3 in the epithelium during colitis contributes to the development of disease. Thus, by targeting Bcl-3 it may be possible to enhance epithelial cell proliferation and regeneration without exacerbating inflammation in the intestine. The potential therapeutic benefits to IBD are highlighted by the reduced clinical score and lack of weight loss in DSS-treated Bcl-3−/− mice. In summary, we describe a novel function for Bcl-3 in regulating epithelial cell proliferation during DSS-induced colitis. The increased epithelial cell proliferation and regeneration in Bcl-3−/− mice supports further a role for NF-κB in maintaining the integrity of the intestinal epithelium.

In the kidney, abundant mercury deposits were demonstrated in the epithelial cells of proximal convoluted tubules, although there were no noticeable pathological changes. In the liver, mercury deposits were detected in hepatocytes as well as Kupffer cells, but tissue

damage was not substantial. In contrast, Me-Hg-induced damage to the nervous system can be devastating. However, it never affects the system evenly: as a rule, the damage was the severest in the cerebral and cerebellar cortices, in which some parts were affected more severely than others. The brain stem was affected to a lesser extent, and the spinal cord was least affected. On the other hand, the pathology of peripheral nerves is LBH589 cost unique in that it appears to be associated with prolonged duration of the disease: the nerves are affected only in cases other than those of acute and subacute types. The sensory nerves are damaged selectively Selleck RXDX-106 with regeneration in prolonged cases. This patient was a 64-year-old fisherman who lived in Minamata City in the southern part of Minamata Bay, which was found to be polluted with mercury from the nearby Chisso Co. Onset of disease was marked by numbness of the feet and disturbance in speech in the Spring of 1959. The patient was treated at Minamata City Hospital for pulmonary

tuberculosis during the period from May 1965 until July 1968. Neurological examination in October 1968 and December 1969 revealed slight constriction of visual fields on the temporal side, muscle rigidity, increased tendon reflexes, tremor of the fingers, dysgraphia, and adiadochokinesis. Other clinical findings included labyrinthine deafness, hyperesthesia, and hypalgesia as well as dysesthesia in the hands and regions below the knees, elevated blood pressure of 170–192 mmHg, a mask-like face, and dyskinesia. The patient died of massive hemorrhage from a gastroduodenal ulcer in January

1970. Autopsy materials from the cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves were embedded in paraffin Dichloromethane dehalogenase and stained with HE, and with KB and Bodian staining methods. Frozen sections were made from peripheral nerves including ventral and dorsal root nerve fibers, sciatic nerve, radial nerve and sural nerve, and stained by the Sugamo myelin and Suzuki’s axon staining methods. The Sugamo myelin stain was modified for use on frozen sections from Kultschiky’s method. Inorganic mercury was detected by photo-emulsion. The gyri of both hemispheres were atrophic and the sulci were widened. This was particularly remarkable in the calcarine cortex and pre- and postcentral gyri. The surface of the calcarine cortex showed moderate atrophy, with widening of the calcarine fissure on the coronal section. Gennari’s band on the calcarine cortex was stained pale with the KB staining method.

Optimization of the benefit-to-risk ratio for individual substances can be achieved on multiple

levels, including (a) patient selection according to clinical/paraclinical criteria, (b) optimization of treatment and monitoring protocols, (c) identification of patients at higher risk for SADRs and (d) the development of biomarkers for treatment response and/or risk profile (Fig. 1). In the following we will discuss these aspects, focusing on treatment of MS and NMO with mAbs (NAT, alemtuzumab, daclizumab and others), FTY, teriflunomide, dimethylfumarate (DMF) and MX. The alpha-4-integrin-inhibitor natalizumab (Tysabri®) [39] was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) selleck kinase inhibitor and European Medicines Agency (EMA) in 2005/06 for the treatment of highly active forms of the relapsing–remitting disease course (RRMS), but not chronic progressive forms [primary or secondary progressive MS (PPMS, SPMS)]. Efficacy in SPMS is under investigation in a Phase

IIIb study, ASCEND in SPMS (A Clinical Study of the Efficacy of Natalizumab on Reducing Disability Progression in Subjects With SPMS; ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01416181). Therapeutic efficacy Dabrafenib mw has also been reported in paediatric cohorts with high disease activity [40, 41]. In NMO, the use of NAT should be avoided, as current data suggest negative effects on relapse rate and disease progression as well as severe astrocyte damage in spite of natalizumab treatment [42, 43]. Monthly NAT administration is standard treatment. So far, there are only few data on the prolongation of infusion intervals [44]. The REFINE trial (Exploratory Study of the Safety, Tolerability and Efficacy of Multiple Regimens of Natalizumab in Adult Subjects With Relapsing Multiple Sclerosis (MS); ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01405820) is investigating both different dosing schemes and application routes [intravenous (i.v.), subcutaneous (s.c.)]; thus far, this approach cannot be recommended outside clinical trials. Safety considerations and monitoring were profoundly influenced by the occurrence of progressive multi-focal leucoencephalopathy (PML). This is a relatively rare but potentially fatal (22%) opportunistic selleck chemicals llc viral

infection of the CNS which can result in severe disability in 40% of the patients [45]. Epidemiological data on the frequency of NAT-associated PML has shown an increase of PML incidence after a treatment duration of 2 years (i.e. 24 infusions) [45]. Thus, therapy continuation for more than 24 infusions requires updated documented informed consent [46] and re-evaluation of the individual risk–benefit ratio. In addition, adequate counselling of patients and relatives is crucial for the early recognition of symptoms and signs of possible PML, as neuropsychological symptoms may prevail initially. Regular clinical monitoring and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are required to detect symptoms suggestive of PML or suspicious lesions [47].

This uncertainty has arisen because trials up until now have primarily focused on haemoglobin targets without considering the roles of ESA dosage per se or other patient-related factors, such as concurrent illness, inflammation and iron therapy. Until such high level clinical PD0325901 ic50 evidence becomes available, it would seem prudent to avoid both high haemoglobin levels (i.e. >120–125 g/L) and high ESA dosages (i.e. erythopoietin dosage ≥200 IU/kg per week or darbepoetin dosage ≥1 µg/kg per week). Future RCTs need to consider

the clinical impacts of therapies purported to reduce ESA resistance, such as oxpenifylline,35 and of different ESA dosages on clinical outcomes within the currently recommended haemoglobin target range of 95–125 g/L. One study, the Clinical Evaluation of the DOSe of Erythropoietins (C.E. DOSE) trial, is currently underway in Italy to evaluate the impacts of two fixed ESA doses (4000 IU/week iv. vs 18 000 IU/week) on a composite primary end-point of all-cause mortality and fatal and non-fatal cardiovascular events in haemodialysis patients.36 We further propose that a trial with a 2 × 2 factorial design will

help better answer the question of whether ESA dose, haemoglobin level or both affect outcomes (See Fig. 1). In this trial proposal, eligible patients would be randomized to high or low dose of ESA and a higher or lower haemoglobin level within the currently recommended selleck screening library target range. Considering the sample size required for such a trial, an international collaboration of nephrologists and clinical trialists would be required and

the trial should be developed as a priority. “
“The prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in children has been on the rise in China and more and more paediatric patients are now relying on chronic renal replacement therapies to sustain their lives. However, there is still a lack of literature in China about Immune system their outcomes, thus making it difficult, if not impossible for the paediatric nephrology community to develop strategies to guide future developments and to better serve this group of sick children. Our institution has recently conducted a nation-wide survey to obtain data of children with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) between the years 2007 to 2012. Questionnaires were distributed to 39 member hospitals of the Chinese Paediatric Nephrology Association. Only 28 of our member hospitals were actively providing dialysis services to children and their responses were included in this study. There were a total of 1033 children with ESRD and within this cohort, 474 patients (45.9%) received chronic dialysis and 380 patients (80.2%) preferred haemodialysis. Haemodialysis is far more commonly used than peritoneal dialysis in China and the outcomes were similar to the experiences in North America.