Serum IL-12p40 was measured by ELISA as recommended by the manufacturer (BD Bioscience). Cells from

uninfected mice had no detectable IL-10, IL-4, or IFN-γ production with antigen stimulation in these experiments. Serum from uninfected mice had no detectible IL-12p40. Nitric oxide production was assayed by measuring nitrite in 3-day recall supernatants see more with the Griess reaction (16). Serial dilutions of sera from infected mice were assayed for Leishmania-specific IgG1 and IgG2a/c by ELISA using L. mexicana FTAg for capture, and biotin-conjugated anti-mouse IgG1 and IgG2a/c (BD Biosciences) with peroxidase-conjugated streptavidin (Jackson ImmunoResearch; West Grove, PA, USA) for detection, using 2,2’-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS) as substrate. IgG quantitation shows mean and SEM for ≥5 mice per group. Significant differences were determined by t-test from optical density

(OD) values for the top two dilutions only. Relative amounts of IgG were calculated for the mean WT value by first creating a standard curve from the mean OD values of the KO serum dilution series, plotting OD vs. (1/dilution factor) and fitting the curve using a 6th degree polynomial (KaleidaGraph Mac v.3.6.4). Values of r2 were always very close to 1·0 for this fit (0·9999 for each). The KO dilution, as read from the calculated function, that gave the same OD as the 60-fold dilution of WT serum was designated as the relative amount after the 60-fold dilution SCH727965 purchase was taken into account. LN cells from infected mice were incubated with or without L. mexicana FTAg for 3 days and

then were stimulated Vildagliptin with phorbol myristate acetate (50 ng/mL), ionomycin (0·5 μg/mL), and Brefeldin A (10 μg/mL) for 4 h followed by staining for CD3ε (FITC-145–2C11), CD8α (PerCP-53–6·7), and CD25 (PE-PC61 5·3), fixed with 1% formaldehyde, and stained for intracellular IL-10 (APC-JES5-16E3) after permeabilization with 1% saponin. We used CD3+CD8− staining to determine CD4+ cells because of the relative downregulation of CD4 with antigen stimulation. Antibodies were from BD Biosciences, eBiosciences, or Caltag (CD25) and flow cytometry was acquired and analysed using a FACSCaliber flow cytometer with CellQuest Pro software (BD Biosciences). Isotype controls were used to identify positive vs. negative cell populations. Parasite quantification was performed for three randomly chosen mice per group, by limiting dilution as described previously (17). The limit of detection was 1·4 log = 25 parasites/lesion. Experiments were performed two to four times and representative data are shown. A two-tailed, unequal variance Student’s t-test was used to compare means of lesion sizes, log parasite burdens, cytokine production, IgG levels, mean fluorescence intensity, and FACS distributions from different groups of mice.

However, MHC class I molecules often also contain a number of unpaired cysteine residues, most notably at position 67 in the peptide-groove, which in the case of HLA-B27 has been shown to be involved in the formation of partially unfolded heavy-chain homodimers,8–10 and at position R788 order 42 on the

external face of the molecule, which in HLA-G allows the formation of fully folded dimers.11,12 Significantly, there are also unpaired cysteine residues in the transmembrane domain region of HLA-B molecules at position 308, and in the cytoplasmic tail domain of many HLA-B molecules at position 325, and at position 339 in HLA-A molecules. PD0325901 The precise role, if any, of these cysteine residues remains unclear, though modification by palmitylation,7 involvement in dimer formation,13 transient interactions in the MHC class I peptide-loading complex,14 and NK receptor recognition have all been demonstrated.7 We recently identified that the cytoplasmic tail domain cysteines were intimately involved in the formation of fully folded MHC class I dimers in exosomes.15 These 50–150 nm vesicles form in the endocytic pathway in multivesicular bodies, some of which are released into the extracellular environment.16 They are released by a wide range

of both normal and tumour cells, and have been implicated in a number of biological processes. We established that the formation of MHC class I dimers in exosomes

was a function of the low level of glutathione (GSH) detected in these vesicles when compared with whole cell lysates, and hypothesized that exosomes cannot maintain the reducing Atazanavir environment of the normal cytoplasm, hence allowing disulphide bonds to form between the cytoplasmic tails.15 To address whether there were also circumstances wherein MHC class I dimers could be induced to form by mimicking the low GSH levels seen in exosomes, we set up experimental systems to modify the cellular redox environment, both by using a strong oxidant treatment, and by inducing apoptosis with agents known to cause a depletion of intracellular GSH. Our data indicate that apoptosis-induced alterations to cellular redox do indeed lead to the induction of MHC class I dimers. The human lymphoblastoid lines .221 (gifted by Salim Khakoo, Imperial College, London, UK) and CEM (gifted by Antony Antoniou, UCL, London, UK), the human Epstein–Barr virus-transformed B-cell line Jesthom (Health Protection Agency line no. 88052004), and the rat C58 thymoma line (gifted by Geoff Butcher; Babraham Institute, Cambridge, UK) were cultured in RPMI-1640 (Gibco, Paisley, UK) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (Gibco).

Tolerance was abrogated in TPH1 knockout mice, and this could be reconstituted with wild-type mast cells, but not by providing 5-hydroxytryptophan to bypass TPH1 and allow normal serotonin synthesis.[57] In a similar manner, arginase (ARG1) expression has often been associated with protective, type 2, macrophages within tissues,[58] and like IDO, has been implicated in regulating the immune response during pregnancy.[59, 60] Arginine is also the substrate for the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), which is normally associated with a Th1 effector

cell response, but under limiting concentrations of arginine in vitro, both arginase and iNOS can cause sufficient depletion Transmembrane Transporters modulator of this essential amino acid to cause mTOR inhibition and block T-cell proliferation.[51] Interleukin-4-induced 1 (IL4i1) was named for its induction in myeloid cells under Th2 conditions, and is also an enzyme that catabolizes find more amino acids, but with preference for those with a hydrophobic side chain such as phenylalanine.[61] Regulatory

T cells were able to induce many of these essential amino acid consuming enzymes in dendritic cells in vitro and within skin grafts in vivo,[51] whereas the enzymes that catabolize threonine (threonine dehydrogenase: TDH) and the branched chain amino acids (branched chain amino acid aminotransferase: BCAT1) were more closely associated with innate inflammation or wound healing,[51] suggesting that tissues have a built-in mechanism for protecting themselves Baf-A1 against immune attack under these circumstances. Intriguingly, long-term surviving, fully healed syngeneic skin grafts also had higher levels of these particular enzymes, as well as increased infiltration by FOXP3+ Treg cells, suggesting that self tolerance and allo-tolerance

within tissues may use similar mechanisms that depend on the availability of nutrients to T cells.[62] T-cell activation is primarily associated with glucose metabolism, even under aerobic conditions, as this not only provides a source of ATP for energy and effector cell activity, it generates the precursors for nucleotide synthesis and lipogenesis that are required for cell proliferation.[4] Under conditions of nutrient restriction and mTOR inhibition, however, it would be expected that T cells would switch to the more efficient pathways of ATP generation, such as oxidative phosphorylation and long-chain fatty acid oxidation, both of which require active mitochondria. Indeed, it has been shown that Treg cells have high levels of AMP kinase activity, which leads to mTOR inhibition, reduced levels of Glut1 and preferential lipid oxidation, effects that can be reversed in Glut1 over-expressing transgenic mice.[63] Evidence is now beginning to emerge that the metabolic pathways active in a T-cell are not only a response to activation and differentiation, but can actually be the trigger to determine their differentiation and cell fate.

The major drawback with such techniques is that this process does not guarantee the selection of CD25hi cells compared to the fluorescence activated cell sorter (FACS) sorter, which allows the important www.selleckchem.com/screening/inhibitor-library.html distinction to be made between the CD4+CD25hi and CD25int cells. In addition,

the process does not allow the selection of Tregs based on multiple parameters and the ∼60% purity of the isolated cells [65] is not comparable with the >95% purity achieved using the FACS sorter [56]. In addition to the automated CliniMACS plus system (Miltenyi Biotec), there are two other commercially available methods for GMP-grade T cell isolation and expansion. Life Technologies Ltd (Paisley, UK) produces the DynaMagTM CTSTM system,

which is a magnetic device used in combination with the Dynabeads® CTS™ and Dynabeads® ClinExVivo™ to positively isolate bead bound cells or deplete unwanted cell types. Dynabeads® CD3/CD28 CTS™ are used to positively isolate T cells; these beads are also able to activate the bound T cells and when cultured in the presence of IL-2 result in a 100–1000-fold expansion of the isolated T cells. The T cells are purified by labelling cells with mouse immunoglobulin selleck chemicals llc (Ig)G1 antibodies and using the Dynabeads® IgG1 Binder CTS™ for positive isolation, negative isolation or cell depletion. Stage Cell Therapeutics (Göttingen, Germany) is a cell therapy company that manufactures Streptamer® reagents for isolation of defined lymphocytes. In view of isolating purer Treg populations, their system involves three positive selection steps by magnetically tagged Fab-Streptamers. Following each labelling and positive selection step, the tagged cells are liberated completely from the magnetically tagged Fab-Streptamers by incubation with a competing Streptactin ligand D-biotin that causes disruption

of the Fab-multimer complex, dissociation of the Fab-Streptamer label from the target cell surface and complete removal upon washing. The first positive isolation step involves anti-CD4-Fab-Streptamer labelling, followed by anti-CD25-Fab-Streptamer labelling, and finally anti-CD45RA-Fab-Streptamer labelling is used to isolate a triple-positive Treg cell preparation that is CD4+CD25+CD45RA+. Mirabegron Interestingly, however, the study by Marek et al. [66] showed that regardless of the initial phenotypic markers used for isolation (i.e. CD25hiCD127low, CD45RA+, CD45 RA–) during the expansion process, Tregs were transforming into effector/memory-like cells which produced inflammatory cytokines. They proposed that independent of the phenotypic markers used for Treg isolation, the only variable to help maintain the Treg phenotype and function was limiting the expansion time to 2 weeks. Based on such studies, therefore, it is of particular importance to ensure that the stability of the Tregs is maintained during the expansion process. Basu et al.

84, 95% CI 0.73∼0.95). When clinical variables were combined with genes, the diagnostic accuracy increased 0.96 (95% CI 0.91∼1.00) in the five gene set and 0.94 (95% CI 0.89∼1.00) in the two gene set. Conclusion: These results support the validity of 5 gene-set for the prediction of AR in Asian adult kidney transplant recipients and suggest the promising role of the peripheral blood gene test in the diagnosis of AR in kidney transplantation. LIM LI HAN, NG KOK PENG, LIM SOO KUN, TAN LI PING, KENG TEE CHAU, CHONG YIP BOON, KONG WAI YEW Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University Malaya Medical Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Introduction: Several studies have consistently shown that subclinical

rejection (SCR) is associated with chronic tubulointerstitial damage, subsequent renal dysfunction and reduced graft survival. This study GS-1101 ic50 investigated whether serum neutrophil gelatinase–associated lipocalin (NGAL) can detect SCR found in protocol biopsies allowing for a less invasive screening procedure. Methods: In this pilot study from June of 2012 to December of 2013, a total of 66 protocol biopsies were taken from patients with serum

creatinine not exceeding 130 μmol/L. At the similar setting, serum NGAL was measured. We instituted protocol biopsies in routine practice at 1, 3, 6 and 12 months, and yearly. We defined SCR as acute rejection identified from a biopsy specimen without concurrent functional deterioration (a serum creatinine not exceeding 20% of baseline values). Results: Six

rigidly defined groups (“Normal histology” selleck products [n = 30], “Borderline SCR” [as Banff i1 and t1] [n = 15], “Acute SCR” [as Banff i2 and t2 or worse] [n = 2], “Antibody-mediated SCR” [n = 1], “Both PD184352 (CI-1040) cellular and antibody-mediated SCR” [n = 3], and “Other histologic changes” [n = 15]) were compared for differences in serum NGAL, presented in Table 1. Compared with the “Normal histology” group, all except for “Acute SCR,” had a higher mean of serum NGAL (“Borderline SCR,” P < 0.001, “Both cellular and antibody-mediated SCR,” P = 0.307, “Other histologic changes,” P < 0.001). Conclusion: Serum NGAL could possibly allow for a clear differentiation between stable transplants with normal histology and stable transplants with important histologic changes apart from subclinical rejection. Therefore, serum NGAL could be an alternative tool to screen for subclinical rejection in situation which protocol biopsy is not possible. Large-scale, multicenter, prospective trials of serum NGAL are required to assess fully its place in the detection of subclinical rejection in stable transplant patients. WU KENNETH, S1, COXALL OWEN2 1Damai Specialist Hospital; 2University of Oxford, UK Introduction: Renal transplant immunosuppressive agents continue to generate much interest. Alemtuzumab(campath), a humanized anti CD 52 antibody has been reported by some centres as a promising agent apart from it being cost effective.

Because of this inhibitory effect, the decrease in mitochondrial ATP production appears to be compensated for by an increase in the activities of pyruvate kinase and lactate dehydrogenase (Leblond-Larouche Doxorubicin order et al., 1977). Moreover, an analysis of plain L-15M and MEM revealed that MEM does not contain sodium pyruvate, pyridoxine-HCl, cysteine, KH2PO4, MgSO4.7H2O, or MgCl2.6H2O. In this study, we

showed that R. felis can also grow and multiply in cell hosts cultivated in L-15M without TPB (Fig. S3b,c). According to our analysis, R. felis seems better equipped than other Rickettsia species to use the pyrimidine pathway (see KEGG database, http://www.genome.jp/kegg/pathway.html), which may explain our findings. Another hypothesis is that TPB Selleck Pirfenidone may enhance the survival of mammalian cells at lower temperatures and thus the replication of R. felis. Finally, the influence of nutrients may explain the inconsistencies between studies that have reported the culture of R. felis in mammalian cells. We thank Guy Vestris for his comments on culturing techniques. “
“Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), a food- and waterborne pathogen, causes diarrhea, hemorrhagic colitis, and life-threatening HUS. MLVA is a newly developed and widely accepted genotyping tool. An MLVA system for EHEC O157 involving nine genomic loci has

already been established. However, the present study revealed that the above-mentioned MLVA system cannot analyze EHEC O26 and O111 isolates—the second and third most dominant EHEC serogroups in Japan, respectively. Therefore, with several modifications to the O157 system and the use of nine additional loci, we developed an expanded MLVA system applicable to EHEC O26, O111, and O157. Our MLVA system had a relatively high resolution power for each of the three serogroups: Simpson’s index of diversity

was 0.991 (95% CI = 0.989–0.993), 0.988 (95% CI, 0.986–0.990), and 0.986 (95% CI, 0.979–0.993) for O26, O111, and O157, respectively. This system also detected outbreak-related isolates; the isolates collected during each of the 12 O26 and O111 outbreaks formed unique clusters, and most of the repeat copy numbers among the isolates collected during the same outbreak exhibited no or single-locus variations. These results were comparable to those of cluster analyses based on PFGE profiles. Therefore, our system can new complement PFGE analysis—the current golden method. Because EHEC strains of three major serogroups can be rapidly analyzed on a single platform with our expanded MLVA system, this system could be widely used in molecular epidemiological studies of EHEC infections. Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), also called STEC, is a food- and waterborne pathogen that causes diarrhea, HC, and life-threatening HUS (1). Shiga toxin is the main virulence factor of EHEC and exerts cytotoxic effects on host cells. Other virulence factors such as the LEE-encoded type III secretion system also contribute to the pathogenicity of EHEC (2).

gondii infection. We analysed some possible mechanisms that could explain the Treg cell-mediated immunosuppression described above. Since it was previously reported that during T. gondii-induced suppression, IL-2, RNIs and IL-10 are involved 16, 17, 20, 21, 40, we evaluated the effect selleck chemical of Treg-cell removal on the production of these mediators in vitro. NO2− production was similar in cells from uninfected and infected animals and Treg-cell elimination had no effect in the production of this molecule (Fig. 5), demonstrating that in our system RNIs are not involved in Treg cell-mediated suppression. The role played by IL-10 in T. gondii-induced suppression has been controversial 17, 19–22. However, since it has

been described as a suppressive mechanism of Treg cells, we analysed IL-10 production. As can be observed in Fig. 5, no IL-10 could be detected in culture supernatant of cells from uninfected mice, while cells from infected animals produced highly significant levels of IL-10. Moreover, elimination of Treg cells led to a drastic reduction of the cytokine level. Because this reduction in IL-10 levels correlated with a recovery of T-cell proliferation after Treg-cell removal, we hypothesized that IL-10 produced by Treg cells could be a key molecule involved in the suppression. We thus first analysed IL-10 production by Foxp3+ and www.selleckchem.com/products/VX-770.html Foxp3− cells from infected mice. As can Thymidine kinase be observed in Fig.

6, IL-10 was produced by both Foxp3+ and Foxp3− cells, but after infection, a 3-fold increase in the proportion of

IL-10-producing cells was observed in the Treg-cell population only, suggesting that these cells were the source of the increased amount of IL-10 found in the supernatant. We next carried out in vitro IL-10 neutralization in order to test if this cytokine was responsible of the Treg cell-mediated suppression. Addition of anti-IL-10 mAb did not alter the proliferation of the ungated, the CD4+ and CD8+ subsets from infected mice (Fig. 7A and B) demonstrating that IL-10 was not responsible for the Treg-cell suppressive effect on CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, despite the increased proportion of IL-10-producing Treg cells detected during infection. We finally explored the possibility that the observed suppression by Treg cells was IL-2-dependent. IL-2 levels in culture supernatants of stimulated splenocytes were drastically reduced in the supernatant of cells from infected animals when compared with uninfected animals (Fig. 5), as reported 17, 20, 21, 31, 33. Removal of Treg cells, however, led to a slight but non-significant reduction of IL-2 levels (Fig. 5), suggesting that Treg cells do not suppress IL-2 production. The absence of IL-2 accumulation also indicated that either this cytokine is not involved in Treg cell-mediated immunosuppression or that the Treg and conventional T (Tconv) cells could compete for the reduced IL-2 concentrations.

, 1999). Imiquimod at 0.5 μg mL−1 was optimal for human PBMC production of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, GM-CSF, G-CSF, and MIP-1α, with a 24-h incubation (Stanley, 2002). Although we see more did not define in the present

study as to which cells in murine PBMC elaborate the cytokines we identified, other studies, with imiquimod, have indicated that the cells in human PBMC producing proinflammatory cytokines are monocyte/macrophages and B cells (Megyeri et al., 1995). Analysis of cellular requirements in human PBMC for cytokine production induced by imiquimod indicated that T-lymphocytes were responsible for IFN-γ production, but required IL-12 and IFN-γ from imiquimod-stimulated macrophages (Wagner et al., 1999). Other studies with TLR-7 agonists suggest that monocytes are the main cells found in abundance in human peripheral blood that are responsive. This was also true of the stronger response induced by TLR-8 and TLR-7/8 agonists, as would be relevant to 3M-003 (Gorden et al., 2005). Although responses of mouse spleen CAL-101 supplier cells to imiquimod

have been reported (Wagner et al., 1999), we are not aware of studies using mouse PBMC and imiquimod. Here, we report novel findings that 3M-003-stimulated mouse PBMC produce high levels of TNF-α and IL-12, but little to no IFN-γ in the time frame examined. Supernatants from mouse PBMC cultures containing high levels of TNF-α and IL-12 were sufficient to induce enhanced candidacidal activity in macrophages, neutrophils, and monocytes. That macrophages are upregulated by PBMC-produced factors in supernatants was evidenced by the 3M-003 carryover in supernatants being much less than the concentrations we show required for consistent direct macrophage activation. Supernatant neutralization and/or addition (e.g. TNF-α, IL-12, or TNF-α+IL-12) experiments are warranted to further elucidate the phagocyte activation mechanism induced by supernatants. These compounds are potentially useful for antifungal therapy.

This could especially be important in the common entity, neonatal candidiasis (Chapman & Faix, 2003), because TLR-8 agonists appear to be particularly potent activators of the neonatal immune system (Philbin & Levy, 2007). It would be of interest to ascertain whether the antifungal activity would extend to hyphal forms and to other fungi. Systemic use of these BCKDHA compounds is under study as an antineoplastic (Dudek et al., 2007; Harrison et al., 2007; Smith et al., 2007). Cytokine induction has been noted after oral administration (Dahl, 2002; Harandi et al., 2003). An additional possible mechanism of action of the imidazoquinolines is TLR-independent immunomodulation by antagonism of adenosine receptors (Philbin & Levy, 2007). Agonists of human TLR-8 can also reverse the function of regulatory T cells; caution may need to be exercised for possible overabundance of an inflammatory response with such agents (Philbin & Levy, 2007).

Clinical and Experimental Immunology 2014, 175: 425–38. Diagnosis, pathogenesis and treatment of myositis: recent advances 2014, 175: 349–58. Neuromyelitis optica: clinical features, immunopathogenesis and treatment Selleckchem Tamoxifen 2014, 176: 149–64. Multiple sclerosis (MS) and neuromyelitis optica (NMO) are two distinct chronic progressive inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) with different pathophysiology and epidemiology. Both are commonly associated with disability, impairment in quality of life, decreased work capacity and high socioeconomic burden [1-4]. The pathophysiology of MS is complex and highly heterogeneous

with both inflammatory and neurodegenerative features [5], resulting in various phenotypes and disease courses. In contrast, the discovery of aquaporin-4 immunoglobulin (Ig)G as an autoantibody with pathogenetic relevance https://www.selleckchem.com/products/avelestat-azd9668.html for NMO [6, 7] had a direct impact on therapeutic approaches. As most immunotherapies in neuroimmunology have been studied in MS [8-22] and – to a lesser extent – in NMO [23-27], this review focuses on disease-modifying drugs (DMDs) for these autoimmune CNS entities. Treatment options for other neuroimmunological diseases of the central or peripheral nervous system

and neuromuscular disorders such as neuro-sarcoidosis [28, 29], myasthenia gravis [30] or chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP) [31] have been reviewed in [32, 33]. Whereas first-line

agents used in MS such as interferons and glatirameracetate exhibit moderate efficacy, we have witnessed several decades of use with highly favourable safety profiles [34]. In contrast, newer agents have surprised us with unexpected and sometimes even severe adverse drug reactions (SADR) or unanticipated high frequency of SADRs (Table 1) [35-37]. Due to the hypothesized selective mechanisms of action, fewer side effects were anticipated for different therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAB) coined initially as ‘magic bullets’ [38]. Rare but occasionally fatal adverse Baricitinib drug reactions have evolved; however, their pathophysiology is still not well explained. Based on potential SADRs, approval for substances such as natalizumab (NAT), mitoxantrone (MX) and – at least in some countries – fingolimod (FTY) was restricted to patients refractory to first-line MS treatment options or with highly aggressive disease course; but labelling is different from the formal inclusion criteria of respective clinical trials. In addition, restriction to escalation therapy may carry the risk of omission bias, i.e. the decision not to treat patients with potential high benefit in order not to put them actively at risk for SADRs. In the face of newly introduced highly efficacious treatment options, strategies are thus needed that allow patient selection and counselling based on individualized safety and efficacy considerations.

TLR are crucially important in the detection of infectious agents. To date, 11 receptors have been discovered. Each receptor

recognizes distinct antigens and triggers a specific cascade of transcription factors; however, all TLR use the NF-κB transcription factor 21. In addition, non-TLR signaling of zymosan by Dectin-1 is synergistic and activates NF-κB, even in the absence of TLR 22. In fact, NF-κB is a major transcription factor that has been implicated as a critical regulator of gene expression in the setting of inflammation in general, and particularly in IL-1β and IL-6 secretion 23, 24. In cytoplasm, NF-κB exists in an inactive form associated with proteins that are known IkB. Extracellular stimuli activate two IkB kinases, which phosphorylate IkB, which is then selectively

ubiquitinated and degraded by the 26S proteasome 25, 26. NF-κB activation is achieved through the signal-induced selleck chemical proteolytic degradation of IkB in cytoplasm, allowing NF-κB to interact with nuclear import machinery and translocate to the nucleus, where it binds to target genes to initiate transcription. As demonstrated find more in Fig. 5A, non-opsonic zymosan activates NF-κB. However, upon interaction with iC3b-opsonized apoptotic cells, and despite marked inhibition of IL-1β and IL-6 secretion, we were able to document only partial inhibition of phosphorylated degraded IkB in both macrophages and DC (five experiments, Fig. 5A). Teicoplanin Therefore, we used another system based on flow cytometry and fluorescent microscopy to verify NF-κB inhibition. As shown in Fig. 5A and B, migration of cytoplasmic p65 is triggered by both LPS and zymosan, resulting in downregulation of cytoplasmic p65 staining (p<0.001, Kolmogorov−Smirnov analysis). Adding apoptotic cells was clearly associated with decreased inhibition (p<0.001, Kolmogorov−Smirnov analysis), as shown in Fig. 5B and C. This was also demonstrated by fluorescent microscopy, which

showed inhibition of nuclear p65 translocalization (Fig. 5C). Bright staining is shown following zymosan uptake, but only mild staining occurred when macrophages were exposed to iC3b-opsonized apoptotic cells prior to zymosan exposure. Next we wanted to verify whether NF-κB inhibition is expressed downstream. We established a luciferase reporter gene with human NF-κB promoter upstream to the luciferase reporter gene that was introduced into iDC, which were then incubated with zymosan in the presence or absence of iC3b-opsonized apoptotic cells. As shown in Fig. 5D, NF-κB inhibition was clearly demonstrated in the presence of iC3b-opsonized apoptotic cells (p<0.01). This was repeated with iC3b-opsonized apoptotic splenocytes in order to exclude a thymocyte-specific effect, with similar results (data not shown).