Nova Hedw 71:315–336 Agerer R, Christan J, Mayr C, Hobbie E (2012) Isotopic signatures and trophic status of Ramaria. Mycol Prog 11:47–59 Aime MC, Matheny PB, Henk DA, Friders EM, Nilsson RH, Piepenbring M, McLaughlin DJ, Szabo LJ, Begerow D, Sampaio JP, Bauer R, Weiss M, Oberwinkler F, Hibbett DS (2006) An overview of the higher-level classification of Pucciniomycotina based on combined analyses of nuclear large and small subunit rDNA sequences. Mycologia 98:896–905PubMed Ainsworth AM, Cannon PF, Dentinger BTM (2013) JNJ-64619178 DNA barcoding and morphological studies reveal two new species of waxcapmushrooms (Hygrophoraceae) in Britain. MycoKeys 7:45–62 Altekar G, Dwarkadas S, Huelsenbeck

JP, Ronqust F (2004) Parallel Metropolis-coupled Markov chain Monte Carlo for Bayesian phylogenetic inference. Bioinformatics 20:407–415PubMed Arnolds E (1979) Notes on Hygrophorus III. Persoonia 10:357–382 Arnolds E (1985a) Notes on Hygrophorus—IV. Persoonia 12:475–478 Arnolds E (1985b) Notes on Hygrophorus—V. A critical study of Hygrocybe fornicata EPZ015938 cell line (Fr.) Sing. sensu lato. Agarica 6:178–190 Arnolds E (1986a) Notes on Hygrophorus—VI. Observations on some new taxa in Hygrocybe. Persoonia 13:57–68 Arnolds E (1986b) Notes on Hygrophorus—VII. Taxonomic and nomenclatural notes on some taxa of Hygrocybe. Persoonia 13:137–160 Arnolds

E (1990) Tribus Hygrocybeae (Kühner) Bas & Arnolds. In: Bas C, Kuyper TW, Noordeloos ME, Vellinga EC (eds) Flora agaricina neerlandica, critical monographs on families of agarics and boleti occurring in the Netherlands, vol 2. AA Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam, pp 71–115 Arnolds E (1995) Hygrophoraceae (Agaricales) in New York State and adjacent areas. 1. Introduction and Hygrocybe subsection Squamulosae. Mycotaxon 53:1–27 Arora D (1986) Mushrooms Vitamin B12 demystified, 2nd edn. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley Arpin N (1966) Recherches chimiotaxinomiques sur les champignons. Sur la présence carotènoïds Clitocybe venustissima. Compt Rend Hebd Séances Acad Sci 262:347–349 Arpin N, Fiasson JL (1971) The pigments of Basidiomycetes: their chemotaxonomic significance. In: Petersen RH (ed) Evolution of the higher Basidiomycetes. University of Knoxville

Press, Knoxville, pp 63–98 Babos M, Halász K, Zagyva T, Zöld-Balogh A, Szegö D, Bratek Z (2011) Preliminary notes on dual relevance of ITS sequences and pigments in Hygrocybe taxonomy. Persoonia 26:99–107PubMedCentralPubMed Baker RED, Dale WT (1951) Fungi of selleck inhibitor Trinidad and Tobago. Mycol Pap 33:1–123 Bakker ES, Olff H, Vandenberghe C, De Maeyer K, Smit R, Gleichman JM, Vera FWM (2004) Ecological anachronisms in the recruitment of temperate light-demanding tree species in wooded pastures. J Appl Ecol 41:571–582 Baroni TJ (1981) A revision of the genus Rhodocybe (Agaricales. Beih Nova Hedw 67:1–194 Bas C (1988) Orders and families in agarics and boleti. In: Bas C, Kuyper TW, Noordeloos ME, Vellinga EC (eds) Flora agaracina neerlandica, vol 1.

The rest mass of electron is denoted by m e, and ΔE c(x) = 0.7 × [E g(x) - E g(0)] is the conduction GW-572016 clinical trial band offset [30]. The bandgap energy of Al x Ga1 – x N is E g(x) = 6.13x + (1 - x)(3.42 - x) (expressed in electron volts) [30, 31]. In a spherical coordinate, Schrödinger Equation 1 can be readily solved with the separation of variables. Thus, the wave function can be written as (4) where n is the principal quantum number, and ℓ and m are the angular momentum numbers. Y ℓm (θ, ϕ) is the spherical harmonic function and is the solution of

the angular part of the Schrödinger equation. By substituting Equation 4 into Equation 1, the following differential equation is obtained for R nℓ (r): (5) In order to calculate R nℓ (r), the two E < V 01 and E > V 01 cases must be considered. With change of variables and some mathematical rearranging, the following spherical Bessel functions in both cases are obtained: Case 1: E < V 01. (6) where Case 2: E > V 01. (7) where For the whole determination of eigenenergies and constants that appeared in the wave function, R nℓ (r) should satisfy the following boundary, convergence,

and normalization conditions. (8) (9) (10) After determining the eigenvalues and wave functions, the third-order susceptibility for two energy levels, ground and first excited states, the model should be described [32, 33]. Thus, the density matrix YAP-TEAD Inhibitor 1 method [34, 35] is used, and the nonlinear third-order susceptibility corresponding to optical mixing between two incident light fields with frequencies enough ω 1 and ω 2 appears in Equation 11: (11) where q is electron charge,

N is carrier density, α fg = 〈ψ f|r|ψ g〉 indicates the dipole transition matrix element, ω o = (E f - E g)/ħ is the resonance frequency between the first excited and ground LY2228820 datasheet states (transition frequency), and Γ is the relaxation rate. For the calculation of third-order susceptibility of QEOEs, we take ω 1 = 0, ω 2 = -ω in Equation 11. The third-order nonlinear optical susceptibility χ (3)(-ω, 0, 0, ω) is a complex function. The nonlinear quadratic electro-optic effect (DC-Kerr effect) and EA frequency dependence susceptibilities are related to the real and imaginary part of χ (3)(-ω, 0, 0, ω) [20–22]. (12) These nonlinear susceptibilities are important characteristics for photoemission or detection applications of quantum dots. Results and discussion In this section, numerical results including the quadratic electro-optic effect and electro-absorption process nonlinear susceptibilities of the proposed spherical quantum dot are explained. In our calculations, some of the material parameters are taken as follows. The number density of carriers is N = 1 × 1024 m-3, electrostatic constant is ϵ = (-0.3x + 10.4)ϵ o[30, 31], and typical relaxation constants are ℏΓ = 0.27556 and 2.7556 meV which correspond to 15- and 1.5-ps relaxation times, respectively.

The asymmetric division of G. trihymene serves as an alternative mechanism through which ciliates may

have led to a multicellular form: a multicellular form could arise by a ciliate with one macronucleus and one micronucleus subdividing itself as a result of growth followed by arrested cytokinesis. It should be noted, however, that such asymmetric division does not result in different developmental fates akin to truly multicellular ciliate species, such as Zoothamnium alternans [35, 36]. As is shown in this study, asymmetric dividers produce new asymmetric dividers and trophonts by successive asymmetric divisions, in favorable conditions, and the more available food, the longer the asymmetric www.selleckchem.com/products/sgc-cbp30.html divisions persisted (Figure 3, filled bars). If asymmetric dividers lived in consistently bacteria-rich

environments for a long time, they might retain the multicellular form, but lose the ability to produce trophonts or tomites. Bacteria-rich environments were common in the ancient ocean, which had very different chemistry from that of today’s [37, 38]. Thus, it is possible that some multicellular organisms, which have not yet been selleck inhibitor discovered or have since gone extinct, originated from certain asymmetric dividers of ciliates. Conclusions Diverse reproductive modes in G. trihymene were unexpectedly Tozasertib cost discovered. This study is the first to report asymmetric division and reproductive cysts in scuticociliates.

In addition, the presence of multiple reproductive modes is a previously undescribed reproductive strategy for ciliates living on food patches in coastal waters. The asymmetric dividers may give insight into possible origins of multicellularity and provide a special opportunity for studying ciliate polyphenism. We predict that asymmetric division and other reproductive strategies will be discovered in other polyphenic protists through more intensive study. Methods Sampling and identifying G. trihymene G. trihymene PRA-270 was isolated with a fine pipette from a seawater rinse of a newly dead crab (species unknown) collected from a sand STK38 beach near the pier of Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong (22°20′ N; 114°17′ E) on August 20, 2007. The salinity was about 33‰, temperature 26°C, and pH 8.1. The cultures used in this study were derived from a single G. trihymene cell of the Hong Kong isolate. Seven other isolates were collected from Texas coastal areas (Table 2). The salinity was about 33‰ and temperature ranged from 23 to 31°C. Trophonts and tomites of G. trihymene were observed in vivo first using a stereomicroscope and then an epi-fluorescence microscope at 100-1000×. The nuclear apparatuses and infraciliature were revealed by the protargol impregnation method [39]. The protargol S™ was manufactured by Polysciences Inc., Warrington, PA (Cat No.

Byrd TF, Horwitz MA: Interferon gamma-activated human monocytes downregulate Alpelisib cost transferrin receptors and inhibit the intracellular multiplication of Legionella pneumophila by limiting

the availability of iron. J Clin Invest 1989, 83:1457–1465.PubMedCrossRef 48. Byrd TF, Horwitz MA: Aberrantly low transferrin receptor expression on human monocytes is associated with nonpermissiveness for Legionella pneumophila growth. J Infect Dis 2000, 181:1394–1400.PubMedCrossRef 49. Barnewall RE, Rikihisa Y, Lee EH: Ehrlichia chaffeensis inclusions are early endosomes which selectively accumulate transferrin receptor. Infect Immun 1997, 65:1455–1461.PubMed 50. Olakanmi O, Britigan BE, Schlesinger LS: Gallium disrupts iron metabolism of mycobacteria residing within human macrophages. Infect Immun 2000, 4EGI-1 concentration 68:5619–5627.PubMedCrossRef 51. Olakanmi O, Schlesinger LS, Ahmed A, Britigan BE: Intraphagosomal Mycobacterium tuberculosis acquires iron from both extracellular transferrin and intracellular iron pools. Impact of interferon-gamma and hemochromatosis. J Biol Chem 2002, 277:49727–49734.PubMedCrossRef 52. Gobin J, Horwitz MA: Exochelins of Mycobacterium tuberculosis remove iron from human iron-binding proteins and donate

iron to mycobactins in the M. tuberculosis cell wall. J Exp Med 1996, 183:1527–1532.PubMedCrossRef 53. Miller JH Cold Spring Harbor, NY, USA: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory; 1972. 54. Maier TM, Havig A, Casey M, Nano Tozasertib manufacturer FE, Frank DW, Zahrt check TC: Construction and characterization of a highly efficient Francisella shuttle plasmid. Appl Environ Microbiol 2004, 70:7511–7519.PubMedCrossRef 55. Lee AH, Papari M, Daefler S: Identification of a NIPSNAP homologue as host cell target for Salmonella virulence protein SpiC. Cell Microbiol 2002, 4:739–750.PubMedCrossRef 56. Epsztejn S, Kakhlon O, Glickstein H, Breuer W, Cabantchik I: Fluorescence analysis of the labile iron pool of mammalian cells. Anal Biochem 1997, 248:31–40.PubMedCrossRef Authors’ contributions XP and BT performed

experiments and analyzed data, SD designed experiments, analyzed data, and drafted manuscript, EH provided critical guidance, insights, and suggestions. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Clostridium perfringens is a Gram-positive anaerobic species able to form heat-resistant endospores and to live in many habitats, from marine sediments to animal gut, to soil. The genus Clostridium comprises species causing severe diseases such as botulism, tetanus, gas gangrene and pseudomembranosus colitis that are generally due to the secretion of powerful toxins. C. perfringens is the most prolific toxin producer within the genus; several of its extracellular toxins and enzymes have been identified as for instance α-toxin (plc, phospholipase C), β-toxin (hemolysin family toxin), ϵ-toxin, θ-toxin (pfoA), κ-toxin (colA, collagenase) and others. Toxins are thought to act synergistically in the development of pathogenesis, and C.

Growth kinetics of CFNX101 and CFNX107 were identical (data not shown), however, when pDOP-C was introduced into CFNX1017 growth of the bacterium was inhibited. The growth rate and yield diminution observed in strain CFNX107/pDOP-C relative to CFNX107 is not likely caused by the metabolic burden imposed by pDOP-C replication. The size of the parental plasmid (p42d) is approximately 374 Kb, while the size of pDOP-C is approximately 5.57 Kb; even if we take into consideration the 6-fold increase in plasmid copy-number, the amount of DNA required for replication

in CFNX107/pDOP-C is several fold lower than the amount of DNA required for replication in CFNX101. Based on these observations it can be hypothesized that RepC, being selleckchem an initiator protein, must perform three tasks: PKC412 order recognize the origin of replication, unwind the DNA at the origin, and recruit the replisome. An excess of RepC could lead to the formation of more of replication “”bubbles”". However, if one or more elements of the replisome are suboptimal in the growing cell, then, some replication forks will be stalled

resulting in inhibition of cell division and growth. We demonstrated that pDOP-C was capable of autonomous replication in an R. etli strain lacking the parental plasmid (p42d). However, we could not introduce this construct into an R. etli strain harboring the parental plasmid. In contrast, a similar construct that contained the repC gene of S. meliloti pSymA replicated autonomously with the same behavior in both strains. This result indicates that RepC is an incompatibility factor that prevents the coexistence of p42d and pDOP-C and that the incompatibility

phenomenon is replicon-specific. Pyruvate dehydrogenase Additionally, a construct (pDOP-C1-1086) expressing a chimeric protein consisting of the amino-terminal region of p42 RepC and 39 aa see more residues of the carboxy-terminal region of the pSymA RepC protein was capable of replicating as an independent entity with the same efficiency in R. etli strains, with or without p42d. This result indicates that the last 39 aa residues of the RepC carboxy-terminal region are directly involved in the incompatibility phenotype. A close inspection of this region in the RepC proteins of pSymA and p42d shows that they share 62.5% of identity, indicating that 15 amino acid residues or less are critical in promoting the incompatibility phenotype. Interestingly, however, in spite of the variations in 15 aa residues, RepC proteins of p42d and pSymA have a similar secondary structure: both possess two alpha helices of ten amino acid residues each, separated by a coiled region of six amino acid residues, in the same relative positions.

Serum amylase and lipase levels were unchanged during the present study, though serum trypsin levels NCT-501 increased after the ASNase injection. Serum PSTI levels increased after the ASNase injection as well. Acute pancreatitis develops with unregulated trypsin activity after breakdown

of critical protective mechanisms and copious secretion of pancreatic enzymes such as amylase and lipase.[21,22] The present results indicate that inhibitors of trypsin could potentially prevent development of pancreatitis, and suggest the presence of subclinical pancreatitis in cases who do not develop pancreatitis during administration of ASNase. Not only ASNase but also prednisolone has been implicated as an agent capable of inducing pancreatitis.[23] Previous reports suggest that ASNase is the more likely source of pancreatitis on the basis of histologic examination of the pancreas, the relative infrequency of prednisolone-induced Blasticidin S pancreatitis, and a negative result after rechallenge with prednisolone.[14,18,24] In the present study, one of 29 patients (3%) developed ASNase-induced pancreatitis, similar to the morbidity rates in previous reports.[4,6,9,16,25] Since the patient developed severe pancreatitis, ASNase was contraindicated during the rest of her treatment for ALL. The results of her blood tests were similar to the results from those patients

who did not develop GDC-0068 supplier acute pancreatitis, so there was no parameter that could be used to predict acute pancreatitis. When ASNase-induced pancreatitis

occurs, treatment with Erwinia chrysanthemi asparaginase is an option. As it can also lead to pancreatitis, Erwinia asparaginase is a second-line therapy for ALL after hypersensitivity to Escherichia coli asparaginase.[26] Furthermore, there are no widely accepted guidelines for use of Erwinia asparaginase, and such treatment is not covered by health insurance providers in Japan. Previous reports have shown that there is a mean of almost 10 days from the last administration of ASNase to diagnosis of pancreatitis.[5,9,16] Similarly, Japanese case reports of ASNase-induced pancreatitis have shown that 50 of 56 patients (89%) who developed Lck ASNase-induced pancreatitis did so within 10 days (median 2 days, range 0–23 days) after administration of ASNase.[27] This period is similar to the time period in the present study when the levels of plasma amino acids, serum trypsin, and serum PSTI changed. In the rat model, it has been proposed that ASNase-induced pancreatic injury can involve disruption of the plasma amino acid balance that is caused by ASNase. Disruption of protein synthesis in acinar cells then causes inhibition of exocytosis following the histologic morphologic changes.[28] The present results imply that the plasma amino acid level imbalance could also be a factor in ASNase-induced pancreatitis in humans.

2005). Recent estimates, however, indicate that it is expected to increase to as

much as ten thousand times in coming decades (Chivian and Bernstein 2008), having disastrous consequences because biological diversity is a precondition for human well-being in terms of food, health and medicine, as well as immaterial values such as aesthetics, recreation and spiritual Selleckchem MK2206 activities. A majority of all medicines used in the US and as much as 80% of medicines used in developing countries originate from biological organisms (Mindell 2009), while only a fraction of all species have been scientifically described and an even smaller fraction of identified species have been screened for useable substances (Beloqui et al. 2008). It is estimated that 15,000 out of 50,000–70,000 known medicinal plants are threatened by extinction (Li and Vederas 2009). Land use change and food production The global demand for food is expected to rise steeply as a result of burgeoning population, shifting dietary preferences and increasing demands for renewable energy (Hubert et al. 2010). In 2009, the FAO estimated that we must increase the global food production by 70% by 2050 in order to meet demands and needs

(Schmidhuber and Tubiello 2007). This estimate was more recently challenged as an underestimation, thereby, further A-1210477 manufacturer underlining the importance of the food problem (Tilman et al. 2002, 2010). At the same time, climate change, water scarcity and land use change are expected to jeopardise continued increases in agricultural production (Schmidhuber

and Tubiello 2007; Battisti and Naylor 2009), thus, making food security a planetary emergency. This calls for find more a range of policies and creative solutions at the global, regional and local levels. In addition, there is an obvious risk that other important ecosystem services, such as clean water, biodiversity and protection against natural hazards, will be compromised in the search for agricultural land (UNEP 2007). The increasing competition for land to AZD4547 produce bio-energy is also a concern that may further aggravate food production and the international scramble for securing future food supplies. The situation is particularly problematic since the production of cereals per capita peaked in the mid-1980s and has since slowly decreased, despite the increase in average yields (Ramankutty et al. 2008). Water scarcity It is estimated that over a billion people worldwide lack access to safe drinking water and, if the current trend continues, there will be 1.8 billion people in regions with absolute water scarcity by 2025 (UNEP 2007). In addition, climate change will exacerbate water scarcity in certain regions, such as Northern India, and put another several hundred million people in acute water crisis.

0 and A 260/A 230 > 2.0 indicating of no protein and solvent contamination, respectively. In addition, 1 μg of each sample of RNA was run on a 1% agarose gel in 1× TBE buffer to examine quality of the samples. RNA was measured to calculate the volume of sample to be added to perform a reverse transcriptase (RT) reaction using SuperScript II Reverse Transcriptase and random hexamers following manufacturer’s instructions (Invitrogen). The purity and quantity of cDNA was examined using an ND-1000 NanoDrop UV-Vis PI3K inhibitor spectrophotometer as above. QPCR was performed using standard protocol using primer pairs for vc1758, vc1785, vc1809 and vc0432 (intV2, vefA, vefB and mdh, respectively) listed in Table 2 using SYBR

green PCR Master Mix (Invitrogen) on an Applied Biosystems 7000 Real Time PCR System (Foster City, CA). To confirm that primer pairs only amplified target genes to assure accurate quantification of the results, non-template controls were included in each replicate. The intV2, vefA, vefB and mdh PCR products were visually checked on agarose gels. The melting curves of PCR products were used to ensure the absence of primer dimers, contamination with genomic DNA and non-specific homologous sequences. The data was analyzed using ABI PRISM 7000 SDS software (Applied

Biosystems). Differences in the gene ratios were extrapolated using the delta-delta Ct method [50]. Every sample was assayed in triplicate and each experiment was performed using a minimum of three different samples. Construction of mutant strains To construct the mutant strains, primers were designed to conduct Splice Overlap Extension PLX3397 mw CYTH4 (SOE) PCR followed by allelic exchange [54]. SOE PCR primers were designed

to produce non-functioning constructs of the 204-bp vefA and the 228-bp vefB genes. The size of the regions removed from vefA and vefB is 169-bp and 191-bp, respectively and were constructed in V. cholerae strain N16961 to create mutant strains V. cholerae SAM-3 and SAM-4, respectively (Table 1). Primer pairs SOEVC1785A/SOEVC1785B and SOEVC1785C/SOEVC1785 D were used to amplify PCR products from VC1785 from V. cholerae strain N16961 (Table 2). The ligated product was amplified with primer pair SOEVC1785A and SOEVC1785 D, which was restricted with enzymes, XbaI and SacI and ligated with pDS132 (New England Biolabs) resulting in pΔ1785. pΔ1785 was transformed into E. coli strain DH5αλpir, plasmid purified and then transformed into E. coli β2155 cells. E. coli β2155 transformants were conjugated with N16961. V. cholerae cells were passaged in LB-suc to cure them of the integrated pΔ1785. PCR was used to screen for V. cholerae strains in which the wild type gene was PRT062607 molecular weight replaced by the mutant gene, which was confirmed by sequencing. The Δ1785 strain was designated V. cholerae strain SAM-3. A knockout mutant of VC1809 was constructed in N16961 as described above using primer pairs listed in Table 2.

g. after 1–2 months. Formation of pustules strongly enhanced and accelerated by incubation at 15°C after growth at 25°C until the mycelium has covered the entire plate. Tufts or pustules 0.4–2 mm diam, confluent to 5 mm, circular, oblong or irregular, loose, or compact with a granular surface, with slow and asynchronous development. Pustules formed on stipes 6–9 μm wide, with variable branching; branching points sometimes thickened to 6 μm. Main axis radial, with stout side branches, with width increasing from top to bottom. Terminal branches often paired and in right angles, (2–)3–5(–6) μm wide. Phialides formed in dense whorls of 3–5(–6) on

cells 3.0–4.5(–5.5) μm wide; straight and divergent, or strongly curved and parallel, gliocladium-like; both Selleckchem Omipalisib types seen on the same conidiophore. Conidia formed in minute heads to 10 μm diam. Phialides (3.7–)5.0–7.5(–10.0) × (2.0–)2.2–3.5(–4.5) μm, l/w = (1.5–)1.7–3.0(–3.5), (1.2–)1.6–2.2(–2.7) μm wide at the base (n = 60); lageniform, conical, or ampulliform, widest in or below the middle, with neck often long and pointed; solitary phialides generally longer and narrower. Conidia (2.2–)2.5–3.5(–4.0) × (1.5–)1.7–2.2(–2.5) μm, l/w = (1.2–)1.3–1.7(–2.2) ISRIB molecular weight (n = 90), hyaline, ellipsoidal or oval, smooth, with few small guttules, sometimes with truncate scar. On PDA after 72

h 1–5 mm at 15°C, 8–10 mm at 25°C, 0–7 mm at 30°C; mycelium covering the plate after 4–5 weeks or growth terminating earlier. Mycelium densely compacted, hyphae thin. Aerial hyphae forming thick, whitish, downy to cottony mats. Colony without distinct zonation. Autolytic activity inconspicuous, with small

brownish excretions from dying hyphae; no crystals seen. No distinct odour noted. Reverse becoming yellow, 2A4–5, 3A4–8 to 4A6–7, gradually changing to yellow- Interleukin-3 receptor or golden-brown, 5CD6–8, 6CD5–6. Conidiation effuse, whitish, farinose, spreading from the plug after 2–3 days as numerous densely disposed, minute conidiophores and fascicles of phialides on long aerial hyphae. On SNA after 72 h 2–6 mm at 15°C, 5–9 mm at 25°C, 0–7 mm at 30°C; individual lobes reaching the plate margin within 3 weeks or later. Colony similar to CMD but usually more irregular, often with wide gaps between mycelial lobes; zonation indistinct. Aerial hyphae scant or forming loose sterile tufts to 1.5 mm diam. Autolytic excretions more frequent than on CMD. Crystals see more lacking or inconspicuous. No distinct odour, no pigment noted. Chlamydospores rare. Conidiation appearing on SNA more reliably than on CMD, first noted after 3 days around the plug, effuse, later in small white floccules, tufts or pustules in varying numbers, sizes and arrangements, mostly 0.1–1 mm diam; sometimes large pustules to 7 mm diam developing within 2–3(–8) weeks.

The source meter was connected to both metallic pads to apply an ac electrical current (I 0), as shown on the right side of Figure 3a. I 0 with an angular modulation frequency of 1ω was applied to generate Joule heat and temperature fluctuations at a frequency of 2ω. The resistance of the narrow metal strip is proportional to the temperature that leads to a voltage fluctuation V = IR of 3ω across the specimen. A lock-in amplifier (A − B mode) connected to the two electrodes in the middle receives the 3ω voltage fluctuation along the narrow metal strip;

that gives the information about the thermal conductivity of the films. A few early studies by our group showed that the thermal conductivities of 1D silicon carbide nanowires (SiC NWs) [16] and Bi NWs [20] were measured successfully with our experimental setup and equipment. For the measurement of the thermal conductivity https://www.selleckchem.com/products/pnd-1186-vs-4718.html Src inhibitor of nonporous and nanoporous

Bi thin films, the third-harmonic voltage (V 3ω ) must be plotted against the natural logarithm of the applied frequencies ln ω resulting in a linear relationship. The thermal conductivity is then determined from the slope in the linear region. Figure 3b shows the linear regions of the plot of V 3ω versus ln ω at various applied ac currents ranging from 5 to 10 μA. The characteristic check details parameters of the linear region calculated from the graphs, as well as other required information, are summarized in Table 1. The difference between two V 3ω values (i.e., V 3ω1 and V 3ω2) is equated to the temperature drop across the Bi film and is used to calculate the cross-plane thermal

conductivity, which is defined by the following Equation: (1) Figure 3 Thermal conductivities of both nonporous and nanoporous Bi thin films. (a) Experimental setup and circuit (left side) and corresponding circuit (right side), equipped with thermal management and electrical measurement systems for thermal conductivity measurements via the 3ω method at room why temperature. (b) Linear regions of the third-harmonic voltage versus the applied frequency at various applied ac currents ranging from 5 to 10 μA. (c) Thermal conductivities of nonporous Bi thin films in terms of applied ac currents. Table 1 Summary of the characteristic measuring parameters I 0 (μA) V 0 (mV) κ (W/m·K) I 0 (μA) V 0 (mV) κ (W/m·K) 5.0 564.38 1.76 × 104 2.90 7.0 601.34 1.45 × 104 2.90 5.5 560.23 1.82 × 104 2.94 8.0 627.17 1.24 × 104 2.80 6.0 565.74 1.77 × 104 2.94 9.0 618.19 1.27 × 104 2.76 6.5 607.28 1.41 × 104 2.89 10.0 630.10 1.17 × 104 2.67 The parameters used for the calculation of the thermal conductivity of nonporous Bi thin films as a function of the applied electrical ac current. R 0 , dR/dT, and l were determined to be 39.38 Ω, 53.64 mΩ/K, and 3 mm, respectively.